Contribution of aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase and aldehyde dehydro-genase on the oxidation of aromatic aldehydes
Publication date
2004Keyword
Aromatic AldehydesAliphatic Aldehydes
Aldehyde Oxidase
Xanthine Oxidase
Aldehyde Dehydro-genase
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Aliphatic aldehydes have a high affinity toward aldehyde dehydrogenase activity but are relatively poor substrates of aldehyde oxidase and xanthine oxidase. In addition, the oxidation of xenobiotic-derived aromatic aldehydes by the latter enzymes has not been studied to any great extent. The present investigation compares the relative contribution of aldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde oxidase, and xanthine oxidase activities in the oxidation of substituted benzaldehydes in separate preparations. The incubation of vanillin, isovanillin, and protocatechuic aldehyde with either guinea pig liver aldehyde oxidase, bovine milk xanthine oxidase, or guinea pig liver aldehyde dehydrogenase demonstrated that the three aldehyde oxidizing enzymes had a complementary substrate specificity. Incubations were also performed with specific inhibitors of each enzyme (isovanillin for aldehyde oxidase, allopurinol for xanthine oxidase, and disulfiram for aldehyde dehydrogenase) to determine the relative contribution of each enzyme in the oxidation of these aldehydes. Under these conditions, vanillin was rapidly oxidized by aldehyde oxidase, isovanillin was predominantly metabolized by aldehyde dehydrogenase activity, and protocatechuic aldehyde was slowly oxidized, possibly by all three enzymes. Thus, aldehyde oxidase activity may be a significant factor in the oxidation of aromatic aldehydes generated from amines and alkyl benzenes during drug metabolism. In addition, this enzyme may also have a role in the catabolism of biogenic amines such as dopamine and noradrenaline where 3-methoxyphenylacetic acids are major metabolites.Version
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Beedham, C., Panoutsopoulos, G.I. and Kouretas, D. (2004). Contribution of aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase and aldehyde dehydro-genase on the oxidation of aromatic aldehydes. Chemical Research in Toxicology. Vol. 17, No. 10, pp. 1368-1376.Link to Version of Record
https://doi.org/10.1021/tx030059uType
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Enzymatic oxidation of vanillin, isovanillin and protocatechuic aldehyde with freshly prepared Guinea pig liver slicesBackground/Aims: The oxidation of xenobiotic-derived aromatic aldehydes with freshly prepared liver slices has not been previously reported. The present investigation compares the relative contribution of aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase activities in the oxidation of vanillin, isovanillin and protocatechuic aldehyde with freshly prepared liver slices. Methods: Vanillin, isovanillin or protocatechuic aldehyde was incubated with liver slices in the presence/absence of specific inhibitors of each enzyme, followed by HPLC. Results: Vanillin was rapidly converted to vanillic acid. Vanillic acid formation was completely inhibited by isovanillin (aldehyde oxidase inhibitor), whereas disulfiram (aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitor) inhibited acid formation by 16% and allopurinol (xanthine oxidase inhibitor) had no effect. Isovanillin was rapidly converted to isovanillic acid. The formation of isovanillic acid was not altered by allopurinol, but considerably inhibited by disulfiram. Protocatechuic aldehyde was converted to protocatechuic acid at a lower rate than that of vanillin or isovanillin. Allopurinol only slightly inhibited protocatechuic aldehyde oxidation, isovanillin had little effect, whereas disulfiram inhibited protocatechuic acid formation by 50%. Conclusions: In freshly prepared liver slices, vanillin is rapidly oxidized by aldehyde oxidase with little contribution from xanthine oxidase or aldehyde dehydrogenase. Isovanillin is not a substrate for aldehyde oxidase and therefore it is metabolized to isovanillic acid predominantly by aldehyde dehydrogenase. All three enzymes contribute to the oxidation of protocatechuic aldehyde to its acid.
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Towards the development of fluorescent probes targeting aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) in cancer. Expression and epigenetic modulation of ALDH1A1, ALDH2 and ALDH3A1 in selected in vitro models.The cancer stem cell (CSC) concept is still very controversial; therefore identification and isolation of this specific population remain challenging. A variety of putative markers have been described and measurement of high aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity has been defined as a characteristic of stem cells (SCs). In this study, a library of novel small molecules (1,4-di-substituted acetalanthraquinones, AAQs), containing an acetal group as protected aldehyde functionality, was designed with the aim of probing affinity for ALDH metabolism and demonstrating their potential as molecular fluorescent probes to identify CSCs. The AAQs were shown to be subjective to acidic hydrolysis using 2M HCl at 37ºC; however compounds containing secondary or tertiary amine functionalities in their sidechain were only partly hydrolysed at 70 ºC. Metabolism studies were conducted using cytosolic fractions from rat liver enriched in ALDHs, yeast ALDH and human recombinant ALDH1A1. Some evidence was demonstrated which linked ALDH metabolism with aldehyde functionalities of hydrolysed AAQs (HAAQs). The AAQs were shown to emit far-red fluorescence (600-750 nm). A close relationship between structure modifications and alteration of cellular localisation, with gained specificity for selected sub-cellular compartments were achieved when assessed in A549 and U-2 OS cell lines. Thermal DNA denaturation and chemosensitivity assays were used to obtain information about DNA binding properties and cytotoxicity of AAQs and HAAQ congeners. All compounds were shown to be weak*to*moderately binding to DNA, and symmetrical 1,4-di-substituted compounds were shown to be non*toxic (IC50 = 100 :/! with non-symmetrical analogues generating IC50 values in the 1-100 :/ range. No fundamental variation in the biological activity was observed when comparing AAQs with HAAQs in the A549 (+ALDH) and MCF7 (-ALDH) cell lines. A pilot investigation revealed that aberrant gene methylation was cell-type dependent for three ALDH isoforms (1A1, 2, 3A1). Decitabine treatment led to enhanced protein expression for ALDH1A1 (A549), ALDH2 (MCF7) and ALDH3A1 (A549). In contrast, the protein level was reduced for ALDH1A1 in HT29 cells after decitabine treatment. ALDH1A1, ALDH2 and ALDH3A1 were highly expressed in prostate cell lines, with expression linked to promoter methylation. In contrast, low levels of DNA methylation were found in primary prostate cancer cells and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Interestingly, ALDH1A1, considered a SC marker, was found to be expressed at low levels in CD133+/ α2β1hi stem cell fraction and upregulated in CD133-= α2β1lo differentiated prostate cancer cells. In summary, the results in this thesis demonstrate the complexity and tumour type specificity of ALDH expression. This creates challenges for the development of selective probes for CSC isolation, such as the AAQs discussed in this thesis. Although inconclusive results were obtained in regard to AAQs and their potential in targeting ALDHs, selected AAQs were shown to reveal interesting biological features highlighting them as potential non-invasive cytometric probes for tracking molecular interactions in live cells.
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Interaction of phthalazines with molybdenum hydroxylases. Phthalazine and its 1-substituted derivatives as substrates, inhibitors and inducers of aldehyde oxidase and xanthine oxidase, both in vitro and in vivo.The interaction of the 2,3-diazanaphthalene, phthalazine and its 1-substituted derivatives with the molybdenum hydroxylases, aldehyde oxidase and xanthine oxidase, has been investigated both in vivo and /Ok in vitro. Metabolic studies, carried out by treating rabbits with both cold and 14C-labelled phthalazine, have shown that this compound is extensively metabolised in vivo, the major metabolite being a glucuronide conjugate. Very little unchanged phthalazine or its molybdenum hydroxylase mediated oxidation product 1-hydroxyphthalazine were excreted in the urine. Pretreatment of rabbits with phthalazine or 1-hydroxyphthalazine had no effect upon the activity of the microsomal monooxygenases but caused a significant increase in the specific activities of both aldehyde oxidase and xanthine oxidase. Determination of the molybdenum content of purified aldehyde oxidase fractions using electrothermal atomic absorption spectroscopy has confirmed that an increase in the molybdenum content of the enzyme fraction accompanies the increase in activity. A qualitative assessment of purified aldehyde oxidase fractions using iso-electric focusing has indicated that this enzyme may be composed of 2 or 3 active variants and following pretreatment with either phthalazine or 1-hydroxyphthalazine a further band of enzyme activity is apparent on the electropherogram. The Km value for phthalazine is significantly reduced with enzyme prepared from phthalazine treated rabbits, indicating that a form of the enzyme with a high affinity for phthalazine may have been induced. 1-Hydrazinophthalazine (Hydralazine) and two other hydrazine substituted N-heterocycles, endralazine and 1-hydrazinoisoquinoline have been shown to exert a potent progressive inhibition of aldehyde oxidase in vitro, effective only in the presence of substrate, but are inactive towards xanthine oxidase. In addition, administration of hydralazine to rabbits results in a significant reduction in liver aldehyde oxidase activity. Investigations into the interaction of some of the metabolites of hydralazine with aldehyde oxidase in vitro suggest that hydralazine is also the inhibiting species in vivo.
